Vesta, The Roman Goddess of Heart and Fire Essay Example for Free

Vesta, The Roman Goddess of Heart and Fire Essay Vesta is the Goddess of Heart and Fire. Being one of the most popular gods/goddesses of Ancient Rome, she symbolizes â€Å"the continuity of the life of the State† (Johnston, par. 488). Being a people of deep religious feeling (Hamilton 45), the ancient Romans embraced gods and goddesses like Vesta into their everyday lives, as they gained in statute and dignity before the eyes of gods and men. Every ancient Roman family has the personification of Vesta in their home, as she is one of the family’s own gods and goddesses. Vesta is among the gods/goddesses who were â€Å"never worshipped in temples, but only in the home, where some of the food at each meal was offered to them† (Hamilton 45). For this reason, Vesta appears to be one of the most lived gods and goddesses of Rome, protecting the heart of the family in order to gain stability, prestige, and dignity. This paper revolves around Vesta, the Roman Goddess of Heart and Fire, and how the Vestal Virgins appear and relate to the ancient Roman state. After examining the dense issue of how Vesta and the Vestal Virgins appear and relate to the people, it shall be proposed that the appointing of Vestal Virgins do not indicate Ancient Rome’s affinity or high respect with the females in general. Instead, it proposes that females can have an opportunity of having the highest honor within the community if she is true to her duties and her chastity. This proposition is supported by the idea that: first, Vestal Virgins carry one of the heaviest responsibilities associated with their social position, and if they are true to it, then they get one of the highest honors; second, Vestal Virgins carry one of the heaviest sacrifices associated with their social position, and if they are true to it, then they get one of the highest honors; third, Vestal Virgins carry one of the heaviest punishments associated with their social position, but if they are true to it, then they get one of the highest honors. Main Text Vestal Virgins Carry One of the Heaviest Responsibilities Vestal Virgins were associated to possess strong spirits and powers in the ancient state of Rome. As priestess of the goddess Vesta, they carry one of the heaviest responsibilities, as they keep the ‘sacred fire’ in the altar aflame and lingering. As stated in the recent page, this act symbolizes â€Å"the continuity of life of the State† (Johnston, par. 488), and this makes it very necessary for the state and the village. Having to protect the ‘home fires’ of the people, Vestal Virgins keep homes stable and flourishing as well, as daughters of the households assist them in tending fires, and then gain stability and permanence. In the process, the virgins would have to be of noble origin. The College of the Vestal Virgins is composed of 18 members, with 6 members working at a time (Fowler, par. 3). Originally, only the upper class blood were traditionally allowed to be included in the college, but later on, it was approved that daughters of patriarchs and freedman were allowed to join the college (Fowler, par. 3). Handpicking physically ideal girls who were 6-10 years of age and had two living parents (Fowler, par. 3), they were sworn to celibacy to serve the first ten years of their Vestal life learning priesthood, the next ten years applying what they learned of priesthood, and the last ten years of priesthood teaching to the new Vestal Virgins what they have learned. Vesta and her Vestal Virgins carry the crucial role of keeping the family and state intact and thriving, though in a metaphorical way. Vestal Virgins Carry One of the Heaviest Sacrifices Vestal Virgins carry one of the heaviest sacrifices in the ancient state of Rome, as they lived their whole lives in total celibacy, chastity and purity. At the end of their term—which is exactly 30 years—these women were allowed to get married. However, as stated by Fowler (2006), â€Å"[m]any retired Vestals decided against marriage† (par. 4). This is because, according to the Roman tradition, wives were supposed to be under the dominion of their husbands. Having to live almost all of their lives getting prime seats in Roman theaters, attending luxurious dinners and parties, or having the permission to vote†¦ being under the power of a man would be very difficult; thus, they spend the rest of their lives being single. Another significant responsibility of Vestal Virgins appears during the celebration of Vesta—the feast called ‘Vestalia’, which is an â€Å"annual ritual in honor of their patron goddess, Vesta† (Fowler, par. 6). As stated by Fowler (2006), every June 7-15 of the year†¦ â€Å"[T]he doors of the Temple of Vesta opened to the mothers of the families of Rome who brought offerings of food to the goddess. The Virgins also prepared special food offerings at this time. This occasion was the only time of year that the doors of the temple were opened to the public. † (par. 6) In vowing for a powerful position for women in the Ancient Rome, such as being a Vestal Virgin, the religious and political rank carried with it heavy sacrifices and forfeits. Vestal Virgins Carry One of the Heaviest Punishments Lastly, Vestal Virgins carry one of the heaviest punishments in Ancient Rome. Aside from the forfeit and sacrifices that were mentioned above, the virgins carry a chastisement if they failed to comply with their responsibilities in keeping the fire of the family and state aflame. This spells death and disaster when the member breaks the vow of celibacy, with the execution being given by means of the following strategies: first, by being buried alive; second, by being thrown into the Tibet River; third, by being publicly whipped (Fowler, par. 5). Aside from her failure to keep her celibacy and chastity, another grave destruction for a Vestal Virgin is when she fails to keep the ceremonial fire inside the Temple of Vesta. It is, indeed, an appealing way of life, as dictated by Fowler (2006, par. 4)†¦ but the responsibilities are grave and the punishments are nothing but life threatening. Conclusion Vesta and her Vestal Virgins relates and serves to the families and state of Rome by doing the following: first, by keeping the sacred fire aflame and burning; second, by keeping the home fires stable and flourishing; third, by sacrificing to a life of chastity and celibacy; fourth and final, by keeping the feast of Vestalia alive within the state. However, as the life of Vestal Virgins reflect one that is full of responsibilities, sacrifices, and punishments†¦ it is evident that the appointing of Vestal Virgins does not indicate Ancient Rome’s affinity or high respect with the females in general. Instead, it proposes that females were given the chance to live a life that only the males were given privilege in the ancient world. If she remains true to her word, her chastity, and her responsibility, then she gains all the respect, dignity and power that only a few citizens were able to obtain. It is true that ancient women of Rome were more privileged in 700 B. C. , but still, life and existence are always at stake. It was 37 years after the founding of Rome that Romulus—one of its founders—was said to have disappeared in a thunderstorm (Bingley, par. 1). Having no king, Numa Pompilius was elected as king of the state, who then appointed priests, pontifices, flamines, the Salii†¦ and the Vestal Virgins who, since then, took charge of fire and water (Dio 3). Bibliography: Bingley. â€Å"Numa Pompilius. † 4 March 2004.Suite101. com. 13 May 2007 http://www. suite101. com/article. cfm/ancient_biographies/106541. Brelich, Angelo. â€Å"Vesta. † The Journal of Roman Studies 40. 12 (1992): 150-151. Burriss, Eli Edward. Taboo, Magic, Spirits: A Study of Primitive Elements in Roman Religion. New York, NY: Macmillan, 1931. Dio, Cassius. â€Å"Fragments of Book I. † Roman History. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Loeb Classical Library, 1914. Exovedate. com. â€Å"Timeline: Ancient Rome. † N. d. 13 May 2007 http://www. exovedate. com/ancient_timeline_one. html. Fowler, Robin. â€Å"Vestal Virgins of Rome: Privileged Keepers of Rome’s Home Fires. † Ancient History. 7 May 2006. Suit101. com. 13 May 2007 http://ancienthistory. suite101. com/article. cfm/vestalvirginsrome. Hamilton, Edith. â€Å"Part 1: The Gods, the Creation, and the Earliest Heroes. † Mythology: Timeless Tales of Gods and Heroes. Boston, New York: Warner Books, 1942. Johnston, Harold Whetstone. â€Å"Chapter 15: The Roman Religion. † The Private Life of the Romans. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Scott, Foresman and Company, 1932.

Theories of Therapeutic Alliance

Theories of Therapeutic Alliance QUOTE:- The therapeutic alliance is a key concept and quintessential variable whose importance is commonly accepted. It is seen as a multi-dimensional concept, emerging trends indicate four dimensions, namely: the patients affective relationship to the therapist; the patients capacity to purposefully work in therapy; the therapists empathic understanding and involvement; the client/therapist agreement on the goals and tasks of treatment. B. JUST 1997 Essay The concept of the Therapeutic Alliance has its roots in the seminal works of Freud when he began formulating his theories in respect of the various concepts relating to the phenomenon and dynamics of transference. (Freud S 1912). Freud began to refer to the concept in his early writings in different terms as a the therapeutic, working, or helping alliance which encapsulated the idea that a relationship between therapist and patient was important for therapeutic success. We note, in the context of this essay, that Freud’s opinion was that such a working arrangement was important but not essential for a therapeutic outcome. His early comments tended to refer to the â€Å"positive feelings that develop between doctor and patient â€Å" although, as his theories evolved, these concepts developed into more concrete forms. As is the case with most evolving concepts it was developed and expanded by a number of other notable figures. Zetzel looked at a number of different types of alliance formation (Zetzel E R 1956) and Greenson conceptualised this in a fuller form drawing a distinction between the real and adaptive forms of this type of relationship and drawing attention to the transferential properties and the possibility of the transference of fantasy in the adaptive elements of the alliance. (Greenson R R 1967) Working at about the same time as Greenson in the USA, Rogers characterised the Therapeutic Alliance in the terminology of â€Å"Client-centered therapy† and, for the first time in the literature, we find a reference to such an alliance being considered â€Å"essential† rather than â€Å"desirable† for the possibility of a positive outcome. (Rogers C R 1965). Rodgers referred to the Therapeutic Alliance as an â€Å"empathetic bond† which had to be actively developed by both doctor and patient and was an essential precursor to any form of exploration of the patient’s problems. Bordin expanded and generalised this concept further still and sought to increase its usefulness by adapting it to psychotherapy in all of its various forms. (Bordin E S 1979) and, in a seminal move towards Just’s analysis, proposed three elemental components of the Therapeutic Alliance, namely the identification of the goal, the identification of the task in hand and the formation of the doctor / patient bond of trust and empathy. In consideration of the title of this essay we should consider this analysis more fully. Bordin conceived of the Therapeutic Alliance as a totally bipartisan construction which required an equal (but different) input from both therapist and patient. This construction required the mutual identification and recognition of the shared goals that were going to be achieved together with an agreed and accepted delineation and acknowledgement of the various tasks necessary to achieve these goals and the bond which he saw as and â€Å"attachment bond generated primarily from mutual respect and empathyâ€Å". (Bordin E S 1979). It follows from this analysis, that Bordin conceived the Therapeutic Alliance not as something which arose spontaneously form the efforts and interaction of therapist and patient, but as the actual vehicle and mechanism by which psychotherapy worked. His attempts to apply this concept to the various contemporary forms of psychotherapy culminated with the realisation a nd articulation that the different forms of psychotherapy focussed in on, and exploited different aspects of the Therapeutic Alliance at different stages of the treatment. This finding is echoed in other writings. As we have outlined, the concept of the Therapeutic Alliance has its origins in the psychodynamic traditions of psychotherapy but has been embraced by the other traditions as well. Those theorists who are grounded in the cognitive school also acknowledge the establishment of a collaborative relationship between therapist and patient as an essential prerequisite to effective therapy. (Beck A T et al. 1979) More recent work as sought to quantify the nature and depth of the Therapeutic Alliance in the various disciplines. Martin’s tour de force on the subject is an impressive meta-analysis which sought to quantify the relationship between the strength of the Therapeutic Alliance and the eventual outcome of treatment. (Martin D J et al. 2000).His findings suggest that it depends how one quantifies the Therapeutic Alliance as to how strong the relationship is found to be. This is an area that we shall return to shortly. Horvath takes this point further with a similar meta-analysis across various forms of psychotherapy and comes to the conclusion that the impact of the Therapeutic Alliance is roughly similar in the different forms and the efficacy of outcome is directly related to the strength of the Therapeutic Alliance bond, irrespective of which particular mode of measurement is used. (Horvath A O et al. 1991). These issues, and indeed the thrust behind Just’s terminology of the Therapeutic Alliance as being the â€Å"quintessential variable are all totally dependent on just how one defines or measures the concept. It is clear from the discussions presented already that it is a â€Å"multidimensional concept†. One is certainly tempted to observe, from a brief overview of the literature, that it has at least as many dimensions as there are authorities writing on the issue. Although such a comment is superficially clearly bordering on the flippant, is can be taken at a much deeper level as a reflection of the fact that the Therapeutic Alliance is defined and measured by different authors in different ways. Historically the evolution of the ability to measure the strength of the alliance has evolved in much the same was (and to some extent in parallel) as the actual formulation of the concepts of the Therapeutic Alliance itself. (Luborsky L et al. 1983). In essence, a judgement of the extent to which one considers the Therapeutic Alliance essential rather than simply desirable, is dependent on the way that one either quantifies or measures it. If we consider the implications of this statement further we can cite comments by two authorities that we have quoted earlier in a different context. In their critical analysis of the role of the Therapeutic Alliance in the field of general psychotherapy, Horvath and Luborsky suggest that research is unlikely to provide guidance to clinical practice unless the relations between clearly defined therapist actions in specific contexts and the effect of these interventions on process or outcome can be demonstrated (Horvath A O, Luborsky L 1993 Pg. 568 ) The effectiveness of the Therapeutic Alliance is also demonstrably effected by other factors. In his book the Heart and Soul of Change, Miller (et al. 1999) puts forward the suggestion that what is of fundamental importance in establishing the alliance is not the persuasion, or theoretical background of the therapist, nor even how empathetic the therapist actually is to the problems of the patient (even if the criteria that one uses is how empathetic the therapist believes that they are being) but is actually the degree to which the patient believe that the therapist understands their own perceptions of reality. To quote Miller â€Å"It the client’s theory of change not the therapist’s that is important.† This thread of argument is taken further with Gabbard’s analysis (Gabbard G O et al. 1994) that the efficacy of the eventual therapeutic intervention, if measured in terms of transference interpretations, defence interpretations, and supportive interventions is ultimately dependent on factors that are therapist independent such as the strength of the patient’s ego, the state of readiness that the patient has reached in terms of their own self-exploration or elaboration, the current phase of the therapeutic process and even the timing within any particular session. Which implies that it is both dynamic and variable. If we consider the third of Just’s four dimensions, that being that the therapists empathic understanding and involvement is an essential prerequisite for the formation of the Therapeutic Alliance, then we can see that Gabbard’s analysis is clearly at odds with Just’s. It is fair to observe that Gabbard is not alone in his assertions as Sexton’s slightly later and incredibly detailed assessment of the status of the Therapeutic Alliance, came to essentially the same conclusions. (Sexton H C et al. 1996). A rather more controversial view is expressed by Kernberg who was admittedly considering the phenomenon of Therapeutic Alliance in the specific context of severe personality disorder (Kernberg O F 1994) and came to the conclusion that the Therapeutic Alliance has to be initially very strong to allow the possibility of negative transference in order for the therapist to sometimes avoid the possibility of either premature termination of therapeutic stalemates. To an extent, he vicariously supports Miller’s contentions by pointing out that the practical strength of the Therapeutic Alliance is largely independent of the therapist’s wishes if one is dealing with a patient who is angrily attacking or even overtly manipulating the frame and goals of treatment. He adds the comment that in these circumstances the strength of the Therapeutic Alliance is largely determined by the level of the patient’s intrinsic anxiety state. Perhaps this can be interpreted as an extension or perhaps a paraphrasing of Miller’s later suggestion. It therefore follows that if we are to agree or to disagree with Just’s original statement, we need to consider just how we can quantify the strength of the various parameters of the Therapeutic Alliance. This is no easy topic and the literature on the subject is vast. One of the first significant and serious attempts to produce some form of measuring tool came in the form of the Luborskys Penn Helping Alliance scales (Luborsky L et al. 1983). This had a number of serious shortcomings and was modified many times in the years immediately after its publication. The Penn Helping Alliance questionnaire was an offshoot of this collaboration and this evolved further into a 19 item scale. Many difficulties arose in the original tools because, to a degree they were dependent on the degree of benefit that the patient had already received from any previous attempts at therapy. A number of commentators made the suggestion that the tools, in order to maximise their applicability and usefulness, should be as independent as possible from the degree of benefit that the patient had already received. (Marmar C R et al. 1989). If we return to our consideration of Bordin’s tripartite assessment of the Therapeutic Alliance which can be considered a fundamental progenitor of Just’s model, then we can cite Horvath and Greenbergs Working Alliance Inventory (Horvath H O et al. 1989) as a useful tool to measure the Therapeutic Alliance in terms of the three subsections of the Bordin definition mentioned earlier. This is perhaps the best direct justification and support of Just’s hypothesis that we can find as Bordin’s threefold thrust of assessment is essentially the same as three of the four elements of Just’s and the fourth element that Just included of the therapist’s empathetic understanding and involvement as being an â€Å"essential prerequisite† of the Therapeutic Alliance, is largely dismissed by authorities such as Gabbard and Sexton who we have cited earlier. Clearly we do not presume to make a judgement as to which authority is essentially correct as we have to observe that the evidence base to support either view is not particularly strong. To return to the original thrust of the concept of measurement, we can state that authorities have regarded Horvath and Greenbergs Working Alliance Inventory as being highly reproducible and as having high levels of interrater reliability in both the 36 item and the shorter 12 item version. (Horvath H O et al. 1989) A degree of vindication for Just’s analysis of the Therapeutic Alliance can be found in the California Psychotherapy Alliance Scales (CALPAS) , which essentially measures the strength of the therapist / patient alliance as a multidimensional construct. It uses four subscales to assess the strength of the bond namely: (i) the patients capacity to work purposefully in therapy, (ii) the affective bond with the therapist, (iii) the therapists empathic understanding and involvement (iv) the agreement between patient and therapist on the goals and tasks of treatment. Which, in essence, cover the four basic premises of Just’s hypothesis. Like the other scales already referred to, the CALPAS scale utilises a 6 point Likert scale for each item. This particular scale has achieved wide acceptance in research literature with a good predictive ability which appears to be valid across the majority of psychotherapeutic disciplines including cognitive behavioural therapy (Fenton L R et al. 2001), psychodynamic psychotherapy (Barber J P et al. 2000) and across several other different treatment areas (Gaston L et al. 1991). It has been found to be especially useful among neurotic patients, but it does appear to be only a weak predictor of outcome with cocaine-dependent patients (Barber J P et al. 1999). In terms of the arguments set out earlier, we note that all of the scales that we have already cited have both a therapist rated and patient rated version as well as an independent observer version. If one considers the literature we can see that the patient self-reported versions tend to give better predictions of outcome than those reports that are therapist based (particularly when assessed early in treatment trajectory). This gives credence to Miller’s view that it is the patient ‘s perception of the Therapeutic Alliance which is the single most important prediction measure of outcome in the psychotherapeutic field. Thus far in this essay we have largely considered the presence of the Therapeutic Alliance as being a comparatively static modality which is either present or not. Although we have acknowledged some views that refer to its dynamic state, we should perhaps examine this in more detail. We have referred to the evolution of the strength of the Therapeutic Alliance as therapy progresses, but we should point to the fact that a number of authorities refer to the relationship of either the variability of the fundamental stability of the Therapeutic Alliance to a number of both clinical and empirical implications. (Hatcher R L et al. 1996). As long as three decades ago Luborsky wrote about the dynamic nature of the Therapeutic Alliance which was actively responsive to the dynamic and changing demands of the evolution of the various phases of therapy. (Luborsky L 1976). A further aspect of this dynamism is to be found in the writings of Bordin who, while acknowledging that the role of the therapist is generally one of support, noted that the role of the therapist tends to be the dominant factor at the beginning of the therapeutic relationship and this evolves into a more shared responsibility as goals and treatment plans are both articulated and defined. He writes that it is the inevitable cycle of the Therapeutic Alliance bond being strained, ruptured and then repaired that is central to the therapeutic process. (Bordin E 1980) Writers such as Gelso and Carter (Gelso C J et al. 1994) formalised (some would say stylised) the evolution of the alliance over the therapeutic interaction as involving â€Å"a weakening after an initial development, followed in successful therapy by an increase to earlier, high levels.† Other authorities have taken a more idiosyncratic view, which may reflect their own personal experience rather than necessarily an informed overview. Horvath characterises the typical trajectory as â€Å"an initial phase of development for the alliance, held to occur within the first five therapy sessions (and probably peaking during the third session), followed by a second, more critical phase, during which the therapist challenges maladaptive patterns, the effect of which is a weakening or rupturing of the alliance that must be repaired if therapy is to continue successfully†. (Horvath A O et al. 1994). In order to provide a balanced picture of the literature, one could also cite the opinion of Greenberg who appears to have a more philanthropic outlook when he describes the process of evolution of the Therapeutic Alliance in successful therapies as â€Å"either rising or holding a steady value over time†. (Greenberg L S 1994) In consideration of the evidence that we have assembled thus far we can state that the Therapeutic Alliance, in Just’s words, is clearly a key concept. We would suggest that the evidence points to the fact that not only is it a key concept but that it is both crucial and fundamental to the whole discipline of psychotherapeutic intervention. References Barber J P, Luborsky L, Crits-Christoph P, Thase M, Weiss R, Frank A, Onken L, Gallop R: 1999 Therapeutic alliance as a predictor of outcome in treatment of cocaine dependence. Psychotherapy Research, 1999 ; 9 (1) : 54 – 73 Barber J P, Connolly M B, Crits-Christoph P, Gladis L, Siqueland L: 2000  Alliance predicts patients outcome beyond in-treatment change in symptoms.  J Consul Clin Psychol 2000 ; 68 (6) : 1027 – 1032 Beck A T, Rush A J, Shaw B F, Emery G: 1979  Cognitive Therapy of Depression.  New York : Guilford Press, 1979 Bordin E S: 1979  The generalizability of the psychoanalytic concept of the working alliance.  Psychotherapy : Theory, Research and Practice 1979 ; 16 (3) : 252 – 260 Bordin E: 1980  A psychodynamic view of counseling psychology.  The Counseling Psychologist 1980 ; 9 : 62 – 66 Fenton L R, Cecero J J, Nich C, Fankforter T L, Carroll K M: 2001  Perspective is everything: the predictive validity working alliance instruments.  Journal of Psychotherapy Practice Research 2001 ; 10 (4) : 262 – 268 Freud S: 1912  The dynamics of transference.  Standard Edition 1912 ; 12 : 97 – 108 Gabbard G O, Horwitz L, Allen J G, et al: 1994  Transference interpretation in the psychotherapy of borderline patients: a high-risk, high-gain phenomenon.  Harv Rev Psychiatry 1994 ; 4 : 59 – 69 Gaston L, Marmar C R, Gallagher D, Thompson L W: 1991  Alliance prediction of outcome beyond in-treatment symptomatic change as psychotherapy processes.  Psychotherapy Research, 1991 ; 1 (2) : 104 – 113 Gelso C J, Carter J A: 1994 Components of the psychotherapy relationship: their interaction and unfolding during treatment.  Journal of Counseling Psychology 1994 ; 41 : 296 – 306 Greenberg L S: 1994  What is real in the relationship? Comment on Gelso and Carter (1994).  Journal of Counselling Psychology 1994 ; 41 : 307 – 310 Greenson R R: 1967  The Technique and Practice of Psychoanalysis.  New York : International Universities Press, 1967 Hatcher R L, Barends A W: 1996  Patients view of the alliance in psychotherapy: exploratory factor analysis of three alliance measures.  J Consult Clin Psychol 1996 ; 64 : 1326 – 1336 Horvath H O, Greenberg L S: 1989  Development and validation of the Working Alliance Inventory.  J Couns Psychol 1989 ; 36 (2) : 223 – 233 Horvath A O, Symonds B D: 1991  Relation between working alliance and outcome in psychotherapy: a meta-analysis. Journal of Counseling Psychology 1991 ; 38 : 139 – 149 Horvath A O, Luborsky L: 1993  The role of the therapeutic alliance in psychotherapy.  J Consult Clin Psychol 1993 ; 61 : 561 – 573 Horvath A O, Gaston L, Luborsky L: 1994  The therapeutic alliance and its measures, in Psychodynamic Treatment and Research, edited by Miller L, Luborsky L, Barber J et al.  New York, Basic Books, 1994, pp 247 – 273 Kernberg O F: 1994  Severe Personality Disorders: Psychotherapeutic Strategies.  New Haven, CT, Yale University Press, 1994 Luborsky L, Crits-Christoph P, Alexander L, Margolis M, Cohen M: T 1983  Two helping alliance methods for predicting outcomes of psychotherapy: a counting signs versus a global rating method.  Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 1983 ; 171 : 480 – 492 Luborsky L: 1976  Helping alliance in psychotherapy, in Successful Psychotherapy, edited by Cleghhorn JL. New York; Brunner / Mazel, 1976, pp 92–116 Marmar C R, Gaston L, Gallagher D, Thompson L W: 1989  Towards the validation of the California Therapeutic Alliance Rating System. Psychological Assessment:  J Consul Clin Psychol 1989 ; 1 : 46 – 52 Martin D J, Garske J P, Davis M K: 2000  Relation of the therapeutic alliance with outcome and other variables: a meta-analytic review.  J Consulting and Clin Psych 2000 ; 68 : 438 – 450 Miller E A et al. 1999  The Heart and Soul of Change  APA : Detroit 1999 Rogers C R: 1965  Client-Centered Therapy.  Boston : Houghton Mifflin, 1965 Sexton H C, Hembrek K, Kvarme G: 1996  The interaction of the alliance and therapy microprocess: a sequential analysis.  J Consult Clin Psychol 1996 ; 64 : 471 – 480 Zetzel E R: 1956  Current concepts of transference.  Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 1956 ; 53 : 16 – 18 ################################################################ 11/01/07 Word count 3,493 PDG

Electronics Arts Company Analysis

Electronics Arts Company Analysis Electronic Arts (EA) is an American developer, marketer, publisher, and distributor of computer and video games. The gaming industry where the company operates is one of the most competitive and dynamic industries. Perform a PEST analysis and five forces analysis on the industry as well as SWOT analysis and suggest an appropriate strategic course for Electronic Arts. 1.0 Introduction Electronic Arts, Inc. (EA) is a worldwide developer, dealer, publisher and distributor of video entertainments. The organization was an initiate of the early home computer amusements organization and was remarkable for encouraging the designers and programmers in charge for its games. Initially, EA was a home computing amusement publisher. EA developed via achievement of several successful developers. It had grown to be one of the worlds biggest third party publishers. (Wikipedia ,2010) Presently, it is mainly successful goods are sports games available under its EA Sports label, entertainments based on trendy film authorizes such as Harry Potter and games from long-running franchises like Medal of Honor, Need for Speed, The Sims, Battlefield and the presently games in the Burnout and Command and Conquer series. With the majority of its sports instruction series being industrial by EA, and the worlds biggest enlargement studio EA Canada which they are also the distributors of the Rock Band series. (Wikipedia ,2010) 2.0 PEST analysis tools PEST can be described as political, economic, social, technological issues, which are applied to evaluate the marketplace for a company or organizational unit. The PEST analysis headings are a structure for analysis a position, and can also be applied to evaluate a plan or position, trend of a business and marketing proposal. It is a helpful implement for understanding marketplace situation, in which they are working, and the opportunities and threats that be positioned within it. (Strategylabs, 2010) The models issues will vary in significance to a particular company based on its business and the products it manufactures. Moreover, issues which are more probable to alter in the outlook or more related to a specified business will carry greater meaning. Additionally, EA who create a large range of goods can find it more helpful to evaluate one division of its organization at a time with the PEST model, hence concerning on the particular issues appropriate to that one division. (Researchmarkets, 2009) By understanding the situation in which EA function exterior to the divisions, they know how to take benefit of the opportunities and diminish the threats. Particularly, it is a functional tool for understanding threats linked with market development or decline and as such the situation, prospective and trend for them. It is finding out where they are in the circumstance of what is occurring exterior that will at several point cause what is happening within of the business. (Modelbenders, 2009) 2.1 Five forces analysis Porters five forces analysis contracts with issues external a business that influence the environment of rivalry within it, the forces inside the organization that control the approach in which firms compete, and accordingly the organizations likely productivity is accomplished in Porters five forces model. An industry has to realize the dynamics of its businesses and marketplaces in order to compete successfully in the market. It described the forces which make rivalry, competing that the competitive atmosphere is formed by the relations of five dissimilar forces acting on a company. It seems at five solution parts specifically the threat of entrance, the power of consumers, the power of providers, the threat of substitutes, and competitive challenges. (Emerald Insight Staff , 1993) Understanding the environment of each of these forces gives associations the essential approaching to allow them to make the right plans to be successful in their marketplace. It is a simple tool that supports EA understanding where power lies in a business situation. It also assists to recognize both the strong point of their current competitive situation, and the strength of a situation of them is looking to move into. With an understandable recognizing of where power lies, it will allow EA to get fair benefit of its strengths, develop weaknesses, and avoid taking incorrect stages. Consequently, to concern this planning instrument efficiently, it is vital to know the position and to look at each of the forces separately. (Modelbenders, 2009) 2.2 SWOT analysis SWOT analysis is a strategic planning system applied to assess the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats concerned in a plan or in an industry venture. The interior issues can be analysis as strengths or weaknesses depending upon their force on the companys goals. The exterior issues can comprise macroeconomic matters, technological alter, legislation, and socio-cultural transforms, as well as alters in the market or competitive situation. (Strategylabs, 2010) In many rival analyses, EA make completed outlines of each competitor in the marketplace, concerning particularly on their virtual competitive strengths and weaknesses utilizing SWOT analysis. EA will observing each competitors price structure, sources of earnings, resources and competencies, competitive situation and manufactured goods isolation, degree of vertical combination, historical reactions to business enlargements and other issues. (Emerald Insight Staff , 1993) Another instance is EA, which is a great example of how computer amusements business can utilize a SWOT analysis to shape out a strong company strategy. They have known that its strength was selling openly to customers and keeping its prices lower than those of other competitors. EA put together a company strategy that integrated mass customization and just-in-time manufacturing and allowing consumers enjoy their computer amusements with complete imagination in the games world. (Researchmarkets, 2009) 2.3 The analytical tools in solutions It helps EA in discovery the true resolution that best meets their requirements and can play a dynamic role in the accomplishment as well as support. To make easy this development, they have recognized strategic deal with key vendors. The growing resolutions portfolio presents customers with leading skill by world-class partners and developed in the marketplace. EA suggests proven resolutions that provide stability, scalability and the elasticity needed to maximize effectiveness and performance in a extremely competitive atmosphere. (Sadler, Philip , 1993) EA bring value to their customers by joining that recognize how with an entire suite of feature rich resolutions that offers the best functionality part. Thus, the system to develop the productivity and efficiency of company analysts, EA must continue to enlarge the width and strength of their data storehouses, which will diminish the number of data sources that analysts need to entrance directly. They must also equip analysts with improved analytical tools that manage the way they do. (Coate, Patricia , 2007) In line with the ever growing complexity of the competitive marketplace EA has abilities far beyond those of the conventional intermediary, letting them to manage as their customers reliance risk partner with resources to contain every part of their business. They give the firm with the most proper resolutions, through consultancy services, systematic tools and risk goods that continue and improve their customers situation in the market. (Sadler, Philip , 1993) 3.0 Conclusion Any company must seek to understand the nature of its competitive environment if it is to be successful in achieving its objectives and in establishing appropriate strategies. If a company fully understands the nature of the analysis, and particularly appreciates which one is the most important, it will be in a stronger position to defend itself against any threats and to influence the forces with its strategy. The situation is fluid, and the nature and relative power of the forces will change. Thus, the need to monitor and stay aware is continuous. (Coate, Patricia , 2007) Some issues during the implementation of these analyses strategic are crucially important for organizations to build long-term business strategy and sustaining competitive advantages rather than simply list the forces. Successful use of the analysis includes identifying the sources of competition, the strength and likelihood of that competition existing, and strategic recommendations for the action a company should take in order to develop barriers to competition. (Researchmarkets, 2009) It is important to make sure that the sources are reliable and relevant to the current condition of the organization. It has to be viable, reliable and valid, in order to conduct a good analysis of the model. For this purpose, the gathered data and information has to be checked and be applied to the current business conditions. Further limitations could be present in the nature of market forces that reduce the applicability of the information sources to present situations and the amount of detailed information required. (Wikipedia, 2010) 4.0 Reference Question 1 Wikipedia (2010), Electronic arts, retrieved on February 12,2011 from en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Arts Strategylabs (2010), Analysis of electronic arts, Retrieved on February 13,2011 from www.strategylabs.net/search-swot-analysis-of-electronic-arts_p8.asp Researchmarkets (2009), Swot analysis , Retrieved on February 12,2011 from www.researchandmarkets.com/reports//electronic_arts_swot_analysis Modelbenders (2009), Electronic arts, Retrieved on February 12, 2011 from www.modelbenders.com/papers/Smith_Game_Impact_Theory.pd E-library Emerald Insight Staff (1993), 1st ed., Strategic Management,    Emerald Group Pub lishing Ltd Sadler, Philip   (1993), 1st ed., Strategic Management , Kogan Page Ltd. Coate, Patricia (2007), 1st ed., Focus on strategic management ,   Emerald Group Publishing Ltd Question 2 Suggest why different approaches to strategy development might be appropriate in different organizations such as a university, a fashion retailer and a high technology company. Introduction A business strategy naturally is an article that obviously expressive the way an industry will pursue and the steps it will take to accomplish its objectives. In a quality of business plan, the business approach results from objectives created to support the stated assignment of the business. In the examination step of business plan development, one of several processes is applied to evaluate a firms market, resources, barriers to achievement and specific advantages. The aim of strategic examination is to classify what a business needs to achieve, the strengths it can bring to bear on achieving the objective and weaknesses that require to be addressed prior to combination and accomplishment. (Sadler, Philip   ,1993) Strategic consideration methodologies can comprise estimating the business circumstances, several of competitive situations, verifying what market forces are at work and ranking competitors, among others. Integrating a business approach typically is one of many steps in a larger production planning process. A business strategy starts with an overall vision. From the vision, a mission statement for the industry is constructed, regularly the shorter and more accurate the better. A mission guides to specific objectives the business will accomplish to complete its mission and that in turn guides to approach to attain goals. Specific plans are regularly then developed to support the business plan. (Coate, Patricia ,2007) Corporate strategy It is verifying the greatest plan to be competitive in the market. It assists to classifies, evaluates, and clarifies the main issues  facing productions to deliver insights corporations can apply to develop performance and achieve a competitive advantage. It is focused with the overall principle and scale of the business to meet stakeholder outlooks. This is an essential level since it is seriously influenced by investors in the production and performs to lead strategic decision-making throughout the business. Corporate strategy is frequently stated openly in an operation statement. The associations have a vision and a plan for accomplishing that vision. They apply that strategy through everything they accomplish. These great associations are able to make and capture value and situation themselves for better value. (Businessdictionary,2009) 2.1 Business unit strategy Strategic business unit (SBU) is focused more with how an industry competes profitably in an exacting marketplace. It focuses strategic decisions about option of goods, meeting wants of clients, gaining benefit over rivals, developing or making new opportunities. It is known as a business unit within the overall corporate identify which is distinguishable from other business because it serves a defined external market where management can conduct strategic planning in relation to products and markets. (Wikipedia ,2010) The unique small business unit advantages that a firm insistently promotes in a constant manner. When organizations become truly large, they are greatest thought of as being collected of a number of productions. These organizational units are large enough and standardized enough to exercise organize over most strategic issues influencing their performance. They are controlled as self contained planning units for which distinct business strategies can be enlarged. A strategic business unit can include an entire organization, or can basically be a smaller division of an organization set up to execute a specific job. The SBU has its own business approach, goals and rivals and these will frequently be dissimilar from those of the parent organization. (Wikipedia ,2010) Operational strategy It is focused with how each division of the business is managed to bring the company and business unit level strategic way. It concerns on problems of resources, progressions, and groups. The operating strategy intends to close the strategic gap between business strategy and accomplishment. It transforms the strategic objectives into obviously described achievement aims and aligns the implementation process to the value intention. The operating strategy consists of several parts starting with the operating business form as the basis for development, function, and technical and human performance style. An operating business form is the associations crucial logic for constantly accomplishing its principle goals. The desired outcome is to have a tactical to carry out the operating strategic plan. (Tmginconline ,2009) A number of the key essentials comprise classify required decisions and correlated issues for business process such as key production processes, managing approaches. Additionally, it gives creative ideas for operating problems and to make new value opportunities. It is a model to close business development gaps and to understand business value. It can be described as the business development direction based on the general vision. For example, key decisions and leading values for key business processes and managing approaches. (Tmginconline ,2009) 2.3 Olympia College Olympia College was established to meet the rising require for private top education in the country and is an associate of the well-known Raffles Education Group. There are choices of analysis of the strategic plan process within Olympia College. The operational strategy shows that direction into generating strategic competitive advantage in the development. Therefore, they can get a new system to structure their business functions and make sure the successful enlargement of their business in the competitive market. (Olympia ,2010) Strategic planning is a long range planning procedure that helps in setting the direction of Olympic College. The strategic plan originates from the colleges mission and strategic vision and gives detailed actionable strategies for moving towards planned outcomes. Moreover, they have to help student improvement toward objective completion. It is more purposeful and successful in their efforts to bring education at a distance, finalize and realize a long range distance education plan. (Olympia ,2010) However, they have to exploit community entrance to Olympic College, particularly for enlarge and apply an on-going enrollment management structure that informs instructional plans, student support services, and facilities planning. They are concerning attention on learning and to assist students, ability, personnel, and administrators perceive themselves as a society of beginners, encourage a college wide culture of measurement that embraces the consideration of learning outcomes and encourages the study of teaching and learning. (Olympia ,2010) 2.4 Padini Holdings Berhad Padini sells ladies shoes and accessories, childrens clothes, maternity wear and accessories through different subsidiaries. They can apply the business unit strategy to formulate and execute the plans that will give a competitively greater fit the situation and accomplish the organizational objectives. However, it can assist Padini to emphasize attention on a particular regional market or consumer group. The long term plan of Padini also wants to do the interior and exterior review to strengthen the situation in the global market. ( Padini, 2010) It shows a fashion viewpoint of each will covers a complete range of goods intended at a targeted customer. The corporation will carry on upgrading the image of its goods while emphasizing value and standard. It is successful grip in the productive but competitive womens footwear market. There are strategies to strengthen its dominant situation with enhanced production lines and increased competence. Having successfully impressed its brand names into the perception of Malaysian consumers, Padini is moving to turn its different labels into regionally familiar fashion leaders. It aims to fulfill the potential of the export market, particularly in the Asian region, and will also step up in foreign country marketing for its goods. ( Padini, 2010) 2.5 Dell INC. Dell Inc. is the top retailer of computer systems in the market. Dell sells desktop personal computers, notebook computers, network servers, and a diversity of computer software. They can apply the corporate strategy as a direction in which its production operations work together to get particular objectives. They implement that strategy for accomplishing their vision to build up a strong communication suppliers and customers relationships in the future. It helps Dell to find out the best strategy to be competitive in the marketplace. Thus, it will guide them to improve the work performance and gain a competitive advantage. (Dell, 2010) Dells objective is to generate loyal clients by providing better experience at a great value. They are devoted to direct relationships, giving best goods with standard based technology outperforming the rivalry with value and an advanced client experience. Dell is the association which is recognized worldwide for its approach of direct selling to the customers and business customers due to which it has obtained greater profits and has grabbed large market share from its rivals. As the business develops with the period of time it is largely enterprise strategy is becoming stronger, complicated and established. (Dell, 2010) Conclusion Nowadays, competitive market a strategy that assures a constant approach to offering the goods or services in a system that will outperform the competition is significant. However, in performance with defining the marketing strategy associations should also have a well defined method for the day to day progression of executing it. A cost leadership strategy is based on the idea that the associations can manufacture and market a high quality goods or services at a lower cost than their rivals. These low costs must transform to profit margins that are higher than the manufacturing average. Some of the circumstances that must exist to support a cost leadership strategy comprise an on-going accessibility of working capital, excellent process engineering abilities, and close management of work, goods designed for easiness of manufacturing and low cost distribution. (Emerald Insight Staff ,1993) It is important to know the market segment as described by the viewpoint characteristics associations have chosen as the objective for their offering. It is based on the criticality of the prospects require, their approach about alteration, the importance of the benefits, barriers that exist to integrating the offering into daily procedure and the reliability of the offering. The prospective for market penetration involves whether they are selling to past clients or a new outlook, how aware the forecasts are of what they are presenting, rivalry, growth rate of the manufacturing and demographics. The prospects willingness to give for product value is established by their understanding of competitive pricing, their capability to give and their want for characteristics such as value, stability and dependability, ease of utilize, consistency and steadiness. (Coate, Patricia ,2007)

Stonehenge Essay -- essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are few ancient structures in the world that captivate the imagination and the critical mind of both the scholarly and ordinary individual as Stonehenge. This intriguingly mysterious Neolithic monument is located near Amesbury in Wiltshire, England and draws thousands of spectators to its arena each year. The oldest part of Stonehenge, called Stonehenge I (constructed ca. 3100 BCE), consists of little more than a circular ditch dug in the soil of the Salisbury plain, with the excess soil piled up to make an embankment approximately six feet tall. This area is approximately three hundred thirty feet in diameter, and encompasses â€Å"Stonehenge proper† – the familiar circles of massive stones that once stood upright as well as the large horseshoe arrangement of standing stones near the center of Stonehenge. (Trefil 48) The outer ring of Stonehenge proper, also known as the â€Å"sarsen circle,† consists of several upright sarsen (gray sandstone) stones. According to the text of Art History, each stone in this circle weighs up to fifty tons and stands up to twenty feet tall, and was once â€Å"capped by a continuous lintel.† To accomplish this architectural structure, the builders used the technique of mortise-and-tendon joints to join and ensure the security of the lintel sections. With this technique, a projecting pin (tenon) located on a lintel fits tightly into a hole designed for it (mortise) on an upright stone. (Stokstad 59) Inside the sarsen circle was once a ring of bluestones. These special stones consisted of various grades of bluish dolerite, which (many individuals conclude) were only found one hundred fifty miles away in the mountains of southern Wales. The inner horseshoe arrangement of five paired lintel-topped uprights, or trilithons, dominates the center of Stonehenge. These sandstone trilithons range in height of up to twenty-four feet, weigh up to forty-five tons, and radiate the mysterious majesty of the megalithic structure. (Stokstad 59) Whatever the method by which the stones arrived on Salisbury Plain, they were apparently set up in about 2800-2700 BCE in either the unfinished circle or the incomplete horseshoe open to the south-west. A century or so later, (ca. 2500 BCE) the great sarsen circle was constructed, and the bluestones were dragged from their holes only to be returned some centuries later to form the i... ...few miles from Stonehenge where there was a convenient glacial deposit of the only stones used for Stonehenge. (Burl 22) However, the view remains that the massive stones of Stonehenge were, indeed, transported hundreds of miles to Salisbury Plain. Assuming that the bluestones were brought from Wales by hand and not transported by glaciers as Aubrey Burl has claimed (or moved by the magical hand of Merlin), various methods of moving them relying only on wood and rope have been suggested. During 2001, in an exercise of experimental archaeology, an attempt was made to transport a large stone along a land and sea route from Wales to Stonehenge. Volunteers successfully pulled the massive stone on a wooden sled over land, but it was ultimately lost in rough seas after being moved to a replica prehistoric boat for its journey across the Bristol Channel. (Burl 21) As we have observed, legends about the origin and purpose of Stonehenge are many in number. It is quite possible that we may never discover the truth behind the mysterious circles of stones on Salisbury Plain, yet it is also true that the intrigue and fascination that accompanies the existence of Stonehenge will surely remain.

The Giraffe: Big and Beautiful :: Informative Essays

The Giraffe-big and Beautiful Ever wonder about the different animals around the world? Ever wonder about their behaviors and features? This all has to do with zoology. Zoology is defined as the branch of biology devoted to the animals. Zoology can be viewed as a series of efforts to analyze and classify animals. Zoology basically explains everything having to do with the entire animal population. Zoology in an important field in the science world because it helps to explain all the different studies of animals. One important and what I feel is the greatest animal studied in zoology is the giraffe also known as Giraffa camelopardalis. The giraffe is the tallest animal averaging seventeen feet. Giraffes usually weigh about 2,500 lbs. Giraffes along with their extremely tall bodies have tongues usually fifteen inches long. Both sexes have two or four short, blunt, skin-covered horns. The coat has chestnut brown blotches against a brown background, markings that blend with the many different trees. As a giraffe ages, its color grows a darker brown. Each animal has a unique set of markings. Giraffes have keen sense of smell, seeing, and fantastic eyesight. A giraffe’s lifespan is up to twenty-six years in the wild and thirty-six years in captivity. Giraffes live on dry savannas and open woodland. They range south in the Sahara and in large numbers only in East Africa. Giraffes are herbivores, they eat mainly on leaves from acacia, mimosa, and wild apricot trees. Scientists have discovered many interesting facts about giraffes. One fact is that giraffes may have existed during the Quaternary period. This period is the division of geologic time in the Cenozoic period. Evidence has been found that the Sahara was occupied by giraffes and other land-grazing animals, during the later part of this time period. Scientists have found fossils and many other evidence that as soon as the dinosaurs disappeared, mammals like the giraffe appeared. Along with these interesting facts, scientists have discovered the giraffe’s different techniques for communication. Chemical communication is a powerful tool, particularly for ensuring reproduction, marking territory, and alerting prey against predators. A male giraffe, for instance, determines the best time to mate by nudging the female until she urinates and then checking the odor to determine if she is fertile. Communication is important among giraffes because it helps them to gather for good, care for their young, and mate. Most commonly, animal communication occurs between animals of the same species. The Giraffe: Big and Beautiful :: Informative Essays The Giraffe-big and Beautiful Ever wonder about the different animals around the world? Ever wonder about their behaviors and features? This all has to do with zoology. Zoology is defined as the branch of biology devoted to the animals. Zoology can be viewed as a series of efforts to analyze and classify animals. Zoology basically explains everything having to do with the entire animal population. Zoology in an important field in the science world because it helps to explain all the different studies of animals. One important and what I feel is the greatest animal studied in zoology is the giraffe also known as Giraffa camelopardalis. The giraffe is the tallest animal averaging seventeen feet. Giraffes usually weigh about 2,500 lbs. Giraffes along with their extremely tall bodies have tongues usually fifteen inches long. Both sexes have two or four short, blunt, skin-covered horns. The coat has chestnut brown blotches against a brown background, markings that blend with the many different trees. As a giraffe ages, its color grows a darker brown. Each animal has a unique set of markings. Giraffes have keen sense of smell, seeing, and fantastic eyesight. A giraffe’s lifespan is up to twenty-six years in the wild and thirty-six years in captivity. Giraffes live on dry savannas and open woodland. They range south in the Sahara and in large numbers only in East Africa. Giraffes are herbivores, they eat mainly on leaves from acacia, mimosa, and wild apricot trees. Scientists have discovered many interesting facts about giraffes. One fact is that giraffes may have existed during the Quaternary period. This period is the division of geologic time in the Cenozoic period. Evidence has been found that the Sahara was occupied by giraffes and other land-grazing animals, during the later part of this time period. Scientists have found fossils and many other evidence that as soon as the dinosaurs disappeared, mammals like the giraffe appeared. Along with these interesting facts, scientists have discovered the giraffe’s different techniques for communication. Chemical communication is a powerful tool, particularly for ensuring reproduction, marking territory, and alerting prey against predators. A male giraffe, for instance, determines the best time to mate by nudging the female until she urinates and then checking the odor to determine if she is fertile. Communication is important among giraffes because it helps them to gather for good, care for their young, and mate. Most commonly, animal communication occurs between animals of the same species.

Danger In The Air At North Intermmediate School In Wilmington? :: essays research papers

Danger in the Air At North Intermmediate School in Wilmington?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Is there danger in the air at the North Intermediate School in Wilmington? Apparently carbon dioxide levels have been found to be above acceptable levels in some class rooms. According to a report dated Dec. 9, 1996, by ATC Associations, an independent consulting firm hired by the Town of Wilmington to conduct Indoor Air Quality and Microbiological testing at the school. â€Å"All indoor air quality parameters were within normal guideline ranges with the exception of consistently elevated levels of carbon dioxide and low relative humidity levels throughout the school,† said the report.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  High levels of carbon dioxide indoors can be a sign of poor ventilation in a building. Carbon dioxide is an odorless gas which can cause discomfort at lower levels and act as a mild narcotic at higher concentrations. According to the Dec. 9 report, â€Å"If carbon dioxide levels exceed 800-1000 parts per million(ppm), the ventilation system is not effectively working.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  At the Wilmington School Committee meeting on Feb. 12, school Superintendent Dr. Geraldine A. O'Donnell stated that there was a complaint of a musty odor in one of the class rooms after heavy rains on Nov. 6. There were also complaints of nausea and headaches from numerous students. The room was inspected by Roger Lessard, Public Building Superintendent. Mr. Lessard found the odor was being caused by Science chemicals stored there and mildew on a window ledge in the room.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  School principal Doug Anderson checked with the school nurse for the attendance rate between Oct. 22 and the first week in November and found nothing out of the ordinary. However, being concerned about the safety of the students and staff, Mr. Anderson requested Lessard hire an outside consultant to evaluate the school's air quality.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Town of Wilmington then contracted with ATC Associations of Woburn, Environmental, Geoteccnical, and Materials Professionals. ATC conducted a test at the school Nov. 21 and sampled 19 locations. 11 of the 19 locations tested had a carbon dioxide level of over 800 ppm. The average carbon dioxide level was 900ppm showing the results of inadequate ventilation.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  ATC explained numerous ways to improve the school's ventilation system. These included: trimming the shrubs close to vents; opening windows to allow air

History of Music Essay

I. Introduction Music—sounds arranged into meaningful— expressive patterns. The composing and playing of music is both a science and an art. Musicology is the study of music as a field of knowledge, with emphasis on history and theory. The raw materials of any kind of music are certain characteristics of sound—pitch (highness or lowness), timbre (tone color), intensity (loudness), and duration. These raw materials are organized by means of the basic elements of rhythm (the pulse, or beat), melody (the tune), and harmony (the blending of tones). Music is often called the universal language because its meaning and appeal are largely the same for people everywhere. It has almost limitless variety. Music can express the widest range of human experience and feeling—joy, and grief, love and hate, amusement and reverence. It may be vocal or instrumental, and may be performed by soloist or by orchestra, band, or chorus. Moreover, Jazz is a form of music that developed in the United States between 1900 and 1915. The origin of the word is uncertain. The music was created originally by the American Negro, but within 40 years it was being performed and created by people of every national and racial background. By the 1940’s no phase of contemporary American music, serious as well as popular, remained untouched by jazz. Jazz bands, magazines, and festivals are found in Japan, in South America, in North Africa, and throughout Europe (O’Meally, 2002). Jazz is difficult to define, and not even jazz musicians and critics agree on a definition. It is a performer’s art, a way of playing. Jazz cannot be written down to show the precise manner in which it is played. It is most accurately preserved not in published scores but on phonograph records. This paper discusses a brief history of the development of some â€Å"mechanical† aspects of music such as musical styles, particular instruments, the recording industry, growth of jazz, etc. II. Discussion A. The Nature of jazz Rhythm. The infectious, compelling rhythms of jazz are based mainly on the 4/4 march tempo. In conventional music, the first and third beats of a four-beat measure are accented. In jazz, however, the second and fourth are accented, producing a syncopated rhythm.   Additional complex contrasting rhythms are built upon the simultaneous use of another form of syncopation in which a tone is held through a beat stringer than the one in which it began. Underlying these multiple rhythms is a regularly accented basic rhythm called â€Å"the beat,† or â€Å"swing†Ã¢â‚¬â€a pulsating, rhythmic feeling that is hard to define and cannot be represented in writing by notes (Lopes, 2002). Improvisation is the composing of music while in actual performance without previous rehearsal. It is a basic element of jazz. The improvising musician may compose a new theme, or melody, or may create new variations and patterns on an existing melody. While one member of a band develops a theme another will expand it. Each musician in the band adds something of his own and several musicians improvise on the same theme at the same time. Jazz is not entirely improvisational, however. Although jazz cannot be notated exactly, much of it is written down, or arranged.   Some passages are left unwritten for solo improvisation. This improvisation and the overall rhythmic interpretation of the music make an arranged piece into jazz (Jones, 2000). Instruments. Another characteristic of jazz is the way musical instruments are played. Brass instruments, such as the trumpet, often take on the tone colors of a singing or speaking voice. Mutes are used to give different sounds to the trumpet, trombone, and other instruments. The rhythm section of a jazz band is not limited to drums. The piano, guitar, and string bass are also used as percussive instruments (Jones, 2000). B. History of Jazz A blending of African and European musical traditions, jazz goes back many years. Revival hymns of the Western frontier, Negro work songs, and minstrel shows are among its many sources. From them came the blues and ragtime. The blues, a vocal music, developed in rural areas; ragtime, a piano music, developed in the cities. After the Civil War many blacks began playing brass-band instruments, and brass marching bands developed. Blues, ragtime, and brass-band music, by the end of the 19th century, blended into a music that today would be classified as jazz. While no one city can be called the birth-place of jazz, New Orleans was one of the most colorful centers of early jazz (Jones, 2000). New Orleans. Around 1898 a brass band led by the cornetist Buddy Bolden played what would probably be recognized as jazz. Bolden’s band, Kid Ory’s Creole Band, and others marched in parades, played for funerals, weddings, and dances, and performed while riding in advertising wagons. These early bands consisted of one or two cornets, a clarinet, a banjo, and drums. About 1910 the bands began playing in the brothels and gambling houses of the notorious Storyville section in New Orleans (Jones, 2000). Dixieland. Many white musicians, influenced by the Negro bands, organized their own bands. Jack â€Å"Papa† Laine, with his Ragtime Band and his Reliance Brass Band, was one of the first white jazzmen. The musicians in these bands read music, and all their pieces were written out. Although they could not capture the bittersweet mood of the blues, they played an orchestral type of ragtime that was later called Dixieland (Benford, 2004). The Jazz Age. In 1917, the federal government closed down Storyville. King Oliver, Jelly Roll Morton, Louis Armstrong, Sidney Bechet, and other New Orleans-born musicians went North and helped spread jazz across the country. By the early 1920’s, the center of jazz had shifted to Chicago, where it flourished in dance halls and speakeasies. Eddie Condon, Gene Krupa, and other Chicago musicians played an intense, driving variation of Dixieland that became known as â€Å"Chicago style† (Benford, 2004). During the Jazz Age, jazz bands became larger, the saxophone was added, and new jazz styles evolved. Virtuoso soloists and new jazz styles evolved. Virtuoso soloists, such as Louis Armstrong and Bix Beiderbecke, became more important as the improvised breaks grew longer. Ma Rainey, Bessie Smith, and other blues singers performed and recorded with jazz bands (Lopes, 2002). III. Conclusion Jazz, however, was not yet considered respectable, mainly because of the places in which it was played. The general public heard, instead of true jazz, carefully rehearsed arrangements of jazz-like pieces. Paul Whiteman, called the â€Å"King of Jazz,† was a pioneer in such music. Furthermore, modern jazz is not a single movement or school. Various schools with distinctive styles have developed (Lopes, 2002). Jazz continued undergoing many changes in the 1970’s. Herbie Hancock and Chick Corea helped popularize jazz-fusion (or jazz-rock), a style that uses electronic synthesizers and electronically amplified instruments.